Discuss one or more theories of Moral Understanding and evaluate its conclusions Essay Example for Free

Discuss one or more theories of Moral Understanding and evaluate its conclusions EssayThe term object lessonity, according to Shaffer (1993) means a set of principles or ideals that help the individual to distinguish right from wrong and to act on this distinction. Morality is important to society, as it would not function effectively unless there is well-nigh agreement of what is right and wrong. There argon many infralying processes and environmental factors, which limit or promote social, cognitive and example bring forthment in kidskinren. In modern society, television could be considered to be one of the major influences on a childs virtuous development. There are tercet go ones to moral development the cognitive approach, the psychodynamic approach and the social learning possible action. The Cognitive-Developmental approach of Piaget and Kohlberg studies how children become more able to reason morally and make moral judgements, whereas the Freuds psychodynamic ap proach is more concerned with the development of the conscience and moral feelings such as guilt and anxiety. The social learning theory of Bandura and Mischel investigates the development of moral behavior and how use models in the family, society and the media, influence it.The theory I am going to discuss is Piagets Cognitive-Developmental Approach. His theory of moral development is concerned with how the childs moral knowledge and intellect change with age. Piaget saw morality as any system of rules, which governs interaction between people. The methods of investigation he used to develop his theories were, he looked at the way children imposed rules in their games. He used games to use up the development of childrens moral development as he vista that by studying rules in the context of a game, he could study the childs spontaneous though directly. He also, assessed changes in the childs moral judgements by telling hypothetical stories about children who lied, stole or br oke something. When using hypothetical stories, Piaget was generally more interested in the reasons why the children give the answers they did and not particularly the answers.Piaget identifies comprises of moral development just as he identified stages with cognitive development. His theories of the way children think and their moral reasoning goes through and through a series of stages, as they are adapting to the institution, these are also cognize as the processes of accommodation and assimilation. He believed that as childrens reasoning about the world changes when they grow older and gain more experience, so does their reasoning about morality. Their ability to think about the world in more complex shipway is what causes them to move on from one stage to the next. This is known as cognitive development.Piaget stated that infants dont understand much about morality until they are about three or four years of age. Their development divides into two main stages after infancy. His stages of moral development arePre Moral Stage (up to three or four years)Children dont understand about rules, and so they dont make moral judgementsStage of Heteronomous Morality (aged three sextette years)Children at this stage think rules are absolute and unchangeable, and the goodness and badness of an action is judged largely on the basis of its consequences rather than by taking tone into account.Stage of Autonomous Morality (from around six or seven)Children at this stage now compute rules as more changeable and intentions are interpreted into account. Children also start to believe that it is possible to break rules and get away with it, whereas earlier they tended to think they will always be found out and by chance punished.Researchers from Europe and America have tested some of Piagets theories and have concluded that distinct stages of development do seem to exist however, other inquiry found that children do not see all rules as being equally important as Pi aget thought they did.Heteronomous Morality, also known as moral realism, means when the child is subject to anothers laws or rules. Children think that rules must(prenominal) be obeyed no matter what the circumstances. A child at this stage will think that rules are only made by authority figures, such as, parents and teachers. Two other features that are displayed in moral reasoning at this stage are, first they expect bad behaviour to be punished in some way, they believe that the penalty should be expiatory the wrongdoer must make amends for the crime by paying with some kind of suffering.They have the view that the amount of punishment should match the badness of the behaviour. Secondly, if the bad behaviour goes undetected then the child believes in immanent justice where any misfortune occurring after the bad behaviour can be seen as a punishment. For example, if a child tells a lie and gets away with it, then later trips and falls, the younger child could consider this a s a punishment. In general, they believe punishment should be fair and that wrongdoing will always be punished in some way.Autonomous Morality, which means when the child is subject to ones own laws and rules. It involves moral relativism whereby the child comes to realise that rules evolve from social relationships. Due to the child decentring and their developed ability to think more flexibly about moral issues, they have began to realise it is important to take other peoples opinions into account. At this stage a child will have developed the pinch that sometimes rules of morality can be broken in certain reasonable circumstances.They believe in reciprocal punishment, whereby the punishment should fit the crime. For example, if a child takes another childs sweets, the first child should be deprived of their sweets or should make it up to the victim in some other way. This is known as the principle of reciprocity. Children will also have learnt at this stage that wrongdoers often avoid punishment, diminishing any belief in immanent justice. They see punishment as a method of making the offender understand the nature of the crime and that punishment is also a deterrent.The move from heteronomous morality to self-reliant morality is influenced by two factors. Children around the age of seven begin to move on from the pre operational stage of an illogical and an egocentric way of thought process to more logical and flexible way of thinking, in the operational stage. Their growing awareness that other people have different views allows them to develop more fester moral reasoning. However, moral development lags at least one to two years behind cognitive development because the whole process depends on the cognitive changes occurring first.Kohlberg expanded Piagets theory to form a theory that also explained the development of moral reasoning. While Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, Kohlbergs theory outlined six stages within three di fferent levels. Kohlberg extended Piagets theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. A study by Colby et al (1983) criticised Piagets assumption that children of ten and eleven years old had reached an adult level of moral reasoning.Piaget was always focusing on what an intermediate child was capable of achieving so he neglected the idea of great variations between the individual childs ways of thinking.In general, Piagets cognitive theory has been criticised for the methods of investigation not being as precise as they could have been. Methods he used were seen as complicated, leading critics to think he under estimated younger childrens capabilities of what they could and could not do. This was because later research went on to conclude that children could actually take other motives into consideration, when they understood what motives were involved.Despite criticism, Piagets work is facilitate regarded as a revolutionar y step forward in the way we understand how children think. It has led to a much more realistic ways of understanding childrens moral development. Many attempts to test Piagets theories from researchers around the world have resulted in acceptance that some of his views and methods do appear to exist.

GraduateWriters.net Mission to Help Students Achieve Academic Excellence Essay Example for Free

GraduateWriters. gain Mission to Help Students Achieve Academic Excellence EssayPHOENIX, AZ, JUNE 24, 2014 /PRESSRELEASEPING/ academic WRITING IS AN IMPORTANT ACTIVITY done by either savant, at all level of education in order to satisfy course belong requirement. Students are required to undertake a variety of academic piece task that could range from short essays, assignments, SAT, IELTS or lengthy term papers, dissertations and thesis. This type of writing could be done either under time demanding pressure or syllabus requirement. As a result students are expected to output a number of papers at the end of each day, week, semester or term. But such time demanding output doesnt al directions guarantee quality of consecutive paper, says Peter Wartson consultant at GraduateWriters. net. In fact a research by National Academic Council for Academic Excellence found that many students quicken to borrowing or stealing the work of others in order to beat deadlines and as result the rate of plagiarism has become so common place, that if every student who plagiarized was to be flunked, the rate of dropout will be worse than that massive open online learning courses (MOOC).With this in mind many students sort the serve of freelanceacademic writers, who are seen as the first level examiners. They guide students on how to structure their research papers, perform conclusion reading and help students to avoiding mistakes tie in to grammar, spelling, phrasing and plagiarism. states Peter, Freelance academic writers, should not be confused with people who helps students achieve shortcut by doing their assignments, no they are honest writers who guide students the way a teacher will do.While this may help students reduce stress related to academic demand, some concerns hasbeen raised concerning the qualification of writers who do students academic work. Mary White an academic consultant at GraduateWriters. net, stated that Students should look at the pool of wr iters a freelance company has, example GraduateWriter. net, is comprised of totally graduate writers who have various qualification in their field of interest that range from MSc, MBA, MRes, EM, LLM, MEng, MA, Phd, and DS. At that company, writers undergo series of test approved by our aged writers to ascertain academic prowess and professional skills in writing and research.The advantage of this pool of workforce is that clients are always guaranteed the best quality writing and redact service, which cannot be found elsewhere on the Internet. Writers are specialist, with background in Education, Medicine, Nursing, Finance, Communication, Media, Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences, Engineering, IT, Law etc. Other qualities that prospective student should look at before selecting an academic writing company include privacy and security, originality, timeliness, quality, revision policy, orders tracking, support and response to queries.A lot of emphasis should be placed on privacy a s it is not only a right but a demand that every users online should be guaranteed of. If an online company published a student paper online, without their formal approval, it could lead to plagiarism and dismissal from school. Therefore students should look for companies that adhere with privacy policies and not let third party have ingress to their client papers. articulates Peter. ABOUT GRADUATEWRITERS.NET Graduate Writers is an academic editing and writing company that help student in carrying outresearch work, gives advice on writing, referencing and proof reading. The company is composed of Graduate writers with specialties in field which can be advantageous to students. PO Box 89670 Phoenix, AZ Peter Wartson Graduate Writers LLC +1-480-409-1822 emailprotected net http//graduatewriters. net Source URLhttp//pressreleaseping. com/graduatewritersnet-mission-help-students-achieve-academic- excellence.

Financial Reporting on Goodwill and Intangible Assets

fiscal Reporting on Goodwill and Intangible AssetsQuestion 1Under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), grace and intangible assets must be treated separately during a business combination in accord with IFRS3. Prior to IFRS 3, companies, during a business combination situation, intangible assets and goodwill could be accounted for as goodwill1.Under IFRS 3, acquired intangible assets ar treated separately to goodwill. With recognised intangible assets, the apprize of the intangible asset can be amortised over the utile life of the asset. Goodwill is the prize difference between the price paid for a business on acquisition and the value of the assets. Unlike intangible assets, goodwill cannot be amortised still needs to be re-measured for impairment, on an annual basis. This impairment value can be included in the income statement as an expense, on an annual basis. This is the critical difference between intangible assets and goodwill2.Upon acquiring a business, the acquiring company must assess the fair value of the relevant assets and liabilities including some identifiable intangible assets. This is the only time that these assets can be recognised on the balance sheet. Internally created intangible assets cannot be amortised in a true line and reduced in this way on the balance sheet unless they are identifiable in terms of a useful life expectancy. Intangible assets that have an indefinite life span cannot be amortised on a bully line basis and must be re-measured for impairment, instead. All internally created intangible assets are re-measured for impairment, regardless of whether or not they are able to ascertain the useful life expectancy of the asset3.Goodwill is generally considered as a type of intangible asset however, for the purposes of IFRS 3, it must be accounted for separately, during a business acquisition, with goodwill neer being amortised and intangible assets that can be recognised to have a specific life expectancy can be amortised on a straight line basis. This is not the same for internally created intangible assets which will never be amortised.Question 2(a) Gearing is calculated by considering the dimension of debt to justice, which is considered as debt divided by capital employed (or debt divided by debt plus shareholder funds). Intangible assets are often added back on to the shareholders funds as intangible assets such(prenominal) as goodwill and are a measure of the history of the company and not its current financial strength4.CalculationGearing metrical composition reported in companys balance sheet(733 + 8585) which is total borrowings divided by shareholder equity / (9318 + 4013) total debt plus shareholder equity69.90%Adjusted to make goodwill valueless(733+8585) / (4013 + 9318 4514) goodwill is taken off the shareholder equity105.68%Adjusted to treat both goodwill and intangible assets as valueless(733+8585) / (4013 + 9318 9974) goodwill and intangible assets are added bac k on277.57%The higher the ratio or gearing percentage, the greater the company favours debt over equity. A ratio of 100% would indicate that the company has an equal preference for both the use of equity and debt5. Therefore, the higher the percentage the greater the dependence and the greater the perceived financial risk. Shareholders will only obtain a return on their equity once all interest payments have been made. Therefore, the higher the reliance on debt, the to a greater extent volatile the shareholder earnings are going to be. However, the debt repayment is set and, therefore, the higher the gearing ratio, the greater the risk but also the greater the emf return for the existing shareholders6.The figure for Allied Boots, for the purposes of this analysis is 105.68%. Any figure over 100% is considered high, which means that there may be volatility for the shareholders, but the profit growth will also be higher.In this case, the figure with goodwill ignored, has been used as this takes into account the fact that goodwill is largely a measure of historic value. The reason for this is that goodwill is entirely a reference to historic value generated in the business and should not, therefore, be taken into account as part of the shareholder equity. Intangible assets are continued value generating assets and should, therefore, remain in the calculation. For example, the intangible assets could include intellectual property which continues to add value to the business, whereas goodwill at the point of business acquisition is simply a ringion of the value of the business name at that point no further value will be generated by virtue of this figure7.Question 3In an entirely efficient market, all analysts will have all relevant reading available to them, allowing them to makes suitable adjustments to give them the best possible information in relation to the value of the business. Truly efficient figures imply that all figures within the accounts reflect al l known information8. However, in reality, markets are not entirely efficient as there is information that is not reflected in the financial data. Financial data, by its very nature, is historic and simply reflects what has happened in the past. Values for intangible assets such as intellectual property and goodwill can vary very apace and are extremely subjective in nature. Goodwill and intangible assets are often based on information that is not publicly available such as internal know-how and, therefore, cannot be suitably analysed to see how realistic they are this potentially offers considerable discretion for managers in terms of how these figures are reflected in the accounts9. referable to the potential discretion in this area, regulators need to lay down certain manipulation rules to ensure that the information being provided by the financial accounts is as pen up to full, true and fair as is possible. This then allows the analysts to make the most suitable decisions fo r their chosen position.BibliographyBlake, John, Lunt, Henry, Accounting Standards, Pearson Education, 2001Dunse, Neil A., Hutchison, Norman E., Goodacre, Alan, Trade-related valuations and the treatment of goodwill, Journal of Property Investment Finance, 22, 3, 2004Elliott, Barry, Elliott, Jamie, Financial Accounting and Reporting, Pearson Education, 2006Mard, Michael J., Hitchner, pile R., Hyden, Steven D., Zyla, Mark L., Valuation for Financial Reporting Intangible Assets, Goodwill, and Impairment Analysis, SFAS 141 and 142, John Wiley and Sons, 2002Reilly, Robert F., Schweihs, Robert P., Valuing Intangible Assets, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999Seetharaman, A., Sreenivasan, Jayashree, Sudha, Raju, Yee, Tey Ya, Managing impairment of goodwill, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 7, 3, 2006Seetharaman, A., Balachandran, M., Saravanan, A.S., Accounting treatment of goodwill yesterday, today and tomorrow Problems and prospects in the international perspective, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 5, 1, 2004Weetman, Pauline, Financial Accounting An Introduction, Pearson Education, 2006Wines, Graeme, Dagwell, Ron, Windsor, Carolyn, Implications of the IFRS goodwill method of accounting treatment, Managerial Auditing Journal, 22, 9, 2007Footnotes1 Weetman, Pauline, Financial Accounting An Introduction, Pearson Education, 20062 Mard, Michael J., Hitchner, James R., Hyden, Steven D., Zyla, Mark L., Valuation for Financial Reporting Intangible Assets, Goodwill, and Impairment Analysis, SFAS 141 and 142, John Wiley and Sons, 20023 Blake, John, Lunt, Henry, Accounting Standards, Pearson Education, 20014 Seetharaman, A., Sreenivasan, Jayashree, Sudha, Raju, Yee, Tey Ya, Managing impairment of goodwill, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 7, 3, 20065 Elliott, Barry, Elliott, Jamie, Financial Accounting and Reporting, Pearson Education, 20066 Dunse, Neil A., Hutchison, Norman E., Goodacre, Alan, Trade-related valuations and the treatment of goodwill, Journal of Property Investm ent Finance, 22, 3, 20047 Seetharaman, A., Balachandran, M., Saravanan, A.S., Accounting treatment of goodwill yesterday, today and tomorrow Problems and prospects in the international perspective, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 5, 1, 20048 Reilly, Robert F., Schweihs, Robert P., Valuing Intangible Assets, McGraw-Hill Professional, 19999 Wines, Graeme, Dagwell, Ron, Windsor, Carolyn, Implications of the IFRS goodwill accounting treatment, Managerial Auditing Journal, 22, 9, 2007

Justice in Environmental Geography

Justice in Environmental GeographyOutline what you understand by the term judge, and critically assess how it has been integrated into the field of environmental geography.In relation to the essay title, environmental justice as a apprehension emerged in the 1980s, and since then, the judgment of environmental justice has been most linked to and integrated into the field of environmental geography, in describing and explaining the spatial aspects of the interaction in the midst of the environment and humans. In this essay, before assessing how it has been integrated into the field of environmental geography, I will first have to define the imagination and meaning of environmental justice. Furthermore, by referencing to several academic studies and case studies, I will attempt to bring out the signifi washstandce of the connection between term justice and environmental geography, in providing evidence to demonstrate how the term justice is applied in the field of environmental geography, as well as limitations in relation to the archetype of environmental justice, which limits the usage and portentous of the concept in the field of environmental geography.The core concept of environmental justice suggests that, no one regardless of their demographics, should bear a disproportionate amount of the negative environmental hazards or risks induced by commercial, industrial and governmental decisions or actions in relation to their operations, development and the murder of environmental laws and policies (Holifield 2001 Schlosberg, 2007 EPA 2012).It also signifies that people should be gnarled and entitled to have a kick downstairs to form or provide opinions on activities that can impact their environment, and that the regulatory agency will consider the opinions provided by the public when decision-making (EPA, 2012). In relation to that, environmental geographyis a school of geography, which primarily focuses on examining the spatial aspects of interac tions between humans and the environment to understand the dynamic, ever-changing relationship between human activities and the environment (Castree et al.,2009). As pointed out by Reed George (2011), environmental justice as a research theme argon popular among other subjects and schools, and are not totally researched by environmental geographers. However, they argued that geographers position is rather unique, as their role is to understand the dynamic human-environment relations, to consider the social and spatial distributions of environmental effects, risk, impacts or hazards, and to identify the arrest and factors that contribute to the continued occurrence of inequality (Reed et. al, 2011). One case analyze example which can demonstrate how environmental justice has been integrated into the field of environmental geography is the study carried out by Pastor, Sadd Hipp (2001).In the study, by referred to the earliest work in this field researchers had set that in predom inantly industrialized societies, a disproportionate share of environmental hazards often occur in minority neighborhoods (Bullard, 1990 Been 1995 Pastor et al., 2001). One of the location highlighted by the studies is Los Angeles County in the US, as evidences suggested that disproportionate word-painting to toxic storage and disposal facilities and toxic air releases associated with the industry is present (Burke, 1993 Sadd, Pastor, Boer, Snyder 1999 Pastor et. al, 2001). With the findings as a plantation, and Los Angeles County as a case study location, the researchers proceeded to train the minority belong-in or disproportionate siting question to find out whether the disproportionate exposure of minorities to toxic storage and disposal facilities was due to the moving- in of minority residents, triggered by the siting of the facility which increases perceived risks of exposure to environmental hazards, and reduces the actual quality of the environment, which causes land values to diminish, or whether it was solely due to disproportionate siting of these facilities (Pastor et. al, 2001). Subsequently, after statistical assumption tests and census data were utilized, they were able to confirm that demographics of the population within an area affects the siting of the facilities, and areas with a high low-income and minority population were most likely to be subjected to the implementation of toxic storage and disposal facilities (Pastor et. al, 2001). However, toxic storage and disposal facilities do not tend to attract minorities to move-in in-fact, unexpectedly, the facilities tend to repel and not attract minorities to move in (Pastor et. al, 2001). This suggests that there is a need to implement policies and changes to protect the minorities subjected to hazard, as the results seemed to suggest that disproportional exposure was not due to minority moving-in to flash vantage of cheaper housing, but in-fact the facilities were actively causing the disproportional exposure due to their siting decision (Pastor et. al, 2001).The concept of Environmental justice and related case studies were integrated in environmental geography, as it provided an explanation to geographers, on the implication of human- induced activities and decisions on the environment, and to provide theories in attempt to explain why spatial variations on level of contaminant across different parts of the environment occur, in relation to spatial inequality and injustice (Castree et al., 2009 Reed et al., 2011). Furthermore, by referring to the spatial distribution of pollution, policy- makers could use statistical Methods to monitor Environmental Pollution and calculate the risks involved, which aids the introduction and implementation of emergency measures, or redevelopment plans for contaminated land, to focus on minimizing the increased risks of environmental hazard and reduce the overall level of pollution that minorities are exposed to, in order to reinforce environmental justice (Gilbert, 1987 Alloway et. al., 1997 Smith, 2013).However, one could argue that the concept might not have been perfectly integrated in the study of environmental geography. Reed George (2011) had highlighted the fact that the concept of environmental justice stemmed from the States in the 1980s, and researches revolved around the concept had since then, remained centralized in the United States of America, supported by the fact that out of 114 articles on environmental justice found in GeoBase in 2009, there are only 46 literature which involves case studies outside USA, plus there were only 15 pieces of literature which involved the research on two developing countries. The researchers had also pointed out that most environmental justice research conducted between the years of 2005 and 2009, were in-fact by American researchers, or researchers in America (Reed et al., 2011). Moreover, Reed George (2011) had also identified that, in 2009, about 50 percent of the authors involved in publishing articles related to environmental justice, identified in Geobase, were associated with at least one American institution. In contrast, the amount of literature published by researches from New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and Australia were significantly lower (Reed et al., 2011). Furthermore, the concept remained heavily skewed research, as less than 10 percent of all articles were published by researchers in the developing countries.Additionally, many studies were focused on a single country or an area within a country Walker Burninghams (2011) study on flood risks focused on examples within the UK, whereas Pastor, Sadd Hipps (2001) study focused solely on the spatial differences and other factors within the LA county. As stated by the researchers, the finding mentioned in the research mentioned previously in this essay may apply for the LA county, but it might be far from accurate when applied to explain the spatial difference of hazards and risks within a different country, hence prevent researchers to apply the concept of environmental justice, and identify a model to highlight the spatial difference in hazards globally (Pastor et al., 2001). This is due to the variations in spatial distribution of the population and industry among different countries, as well as the difference in political policies which affects urban development and readiness (Reed et al., 2011). These could imply that environmental justice is integrated in the studies of environmental geography in a regional scale, and not in a global scale. Also, the concept of environmental justice might not apply to other countries other than America, due to the fact that it contains a skewed representation from American researchers, meaning that the a posteriori and conceptual focus of environmental justice had only expanded marginally since the establishment of the concept, thus preventing environmental geographers to study the global spatial asp ects on the interactions between human activities and the environment in a wider context (Reed et al., 2011).In conclusion, the concept of environmental justice and relevant case studies on the surrounding this concept are integrated into environmental geography. This is mainly because through using this concept, it helps environmental geographers in their research by highlight how environmental decisions induced by humans can induce a hazardous environment, and why some part of the population are more prone to be affected by the hazards as a result. However, the limitations as mentioned above, in regards to most of the researches on environmental justice were done focusing on America and are heavily skewed, means that environmental justice as a concept might not be significant to the study of environmental geography, as the concept cannot relate well to countries outside the US, nor is it significant when applied globally, for geographers to highlight global spatial difference, and to study the dynamics between human- induced actions and the environment on a global scale.ReferenceAlloway, B. Ayres, C (1997) chemical substance Principles of Environmental Pollution, Second Edition. CRC Press.Arild Holt-Jensen (1999) Geography History and Concepts A Students Guide. London SAGEBeen, V. (1995) Analyzing evidence of environmental justice. Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law, 11, 137.Bullard, R. (1990) fling in Dixie Race, class and environmental quality. Boulder Westview Press.Burke, L. (1993) Race and environmental equity A geographic analysis in Los Angeles. Geoinfo Systems 4450.Castree, N., Demeritt, D., Liverman, D. Rhoads, B. (2009) A abetter _or_ abettor to Environmental Geography. London Wiley-Blackwell.Gilbert, R. (1987) Statistical Methods for Environmental Pollution Monitoring. Wiley.Holifield, R. 2001. Defining environmental justice and environmental racism. Urban Geography 22 (1) 78-90.Pastor, M., Sadd, J. Hipp, J. (2001) Which Came First? T oxic Facilities, nonage Move-In, and Environmental Justice. Journal of Urban Affairs 23 (1) 1-21. Wiley-Blackwell.Reed, M., George, C. (2011) Where in the world is environmental justice? Progress in Human Geography, 35, 835842.Sadd, J., Pastor, M., Boer, J., Snyder, L. (1999) Every breath you take The demographics of toxic air releases in southern California. Economic Development Quarterly, 13(2),107123.Schlosberg, D (2007) Defining Environmental Justice Theories, Movements, and Nature. USA Oxford University Press.Smith, K (2013) Environmental Hazards Assessing Risk and diminution Disaster. Fifth Edition. Routledge.U.S. Environemntal Protection Agency (2012) Environmental Justice Basic Information. Online Available from http//www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/basics/index.html. Accessed 22nd March 2014Walker, G. Burningham, K. (2011) Flood risk, vulnerability and environmental justice render and evaluation of inequality in a UK context. Critical Social Policy 2011 31 216. Sage.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Benefits and Drawbacks of Foreign form Investment (FDI)Foreign post Investment (FDI) is the single most merchandiseant mechanism for the globalisation of the international economy. FDI is the coronation of real assets in a outside country, it is acquiring assets such(prenominal) as land and equipment in an otherwise troops country, but direct the facility from the spot country. FDI is viewed by many as necessary to stimulate the economies of both genuine and underdeveloped countries. The global economy experienced a cliff in unconnected investiture flows. Developing countries have been hit the hardest by the decline in FDI as foreign investment is being redirected to more developed countries. It is judge that FDI will continue to be the most significant tool for globalization.It is widely accepted that FDI inflows provide economical benefits such as increased competition, technological spillovers and innovations, and increased employment. The impact of foreign invest ment extends far beyond economic growth. FDI can be a catalyst for change to society as a whole, therefore one must think in terms of economic, governmental, tender, technological, cultural, and environmental factors and examine all the effects of FDI in order to interpret the true semipermanent impact. Foreign investment and globalization continues to increase, developing countries desperately seeking to attract foreign investment can have undesir up to(p) outcomes. FDI can have many prejudicious effects, such as job loss, human rights abuses, political unrest, financial volatility, environmental degradation, and increased cultural tensions.The results of FDI on the global economy are interlacing and unpredictable, yet they can vary from country to country. This is due in bureau to the practices that are in place prior to receiving FDI inflows, such as deep-rooted favorable customs, political practices, laws and regulations. In more developed countries foreign direct investm ent resulted in rapid economic growth and social nurture and in bad economies, underdeveloped countries, the results can be quite different.Types of Foreign Direct InvestmentAccording to Ali Guo (2005) states the main types of FDI in world are Equity Joint Ventures, contractual Joint Ventures and the establishment of Wholly Foreign Owned Enterprises. Contractual joint ventures were initially the most important in the world. Equity joint ventures and wholly foreign owned enterprises became predominant and recent years have seen a proliferation of wholly foreign owned enterprises. Equity joint ventures have been a popular unveiling mode for two reasons. Ali Guo (2005) stated that most governments believes that equity joint ventures best serve the objective of foreign keen, technology, and management experiences. Secondly, foreign investors hope through lovable in joint ventures to get local partners assistance in the domestic markets. Foreign investors have elect wholly foreign owned enterprises as the preferable entry mode in recent years so as to avoid problems associated with equity joint ventures.Motives for foreign direct investmentKokko (2006) identifies Foreign Direct Investment literature three as the most everyday investment motivations resource-seeking, market-seeking and efficiency-seeking. Kokko (2006) suggests that although most MNCs engage in FDI that combines the characters of each of these categories, the gravity of each motive on the formulation of the MNCs strategy whitethorn also change, as a firm becomes an established and experienced foreign investor. The availability of natural resources, cheap unskilled or semi-skilled labor, creative assets and physical infrastructure promotes resource-seeking activities. According to Kokko (2006) the most important innkeeper country determinant of FDI has been the availability of natural resources, e.g. minerals, raw materials and agricultural products. Labor-seeking investment is commonly un der headn by manufacturing and service MNEs from countries with senior high school real labor cost, which set up or acquire subsidiaries in countries with lower real labor costs to offer labor intensive intermediate or final products. To attract such production, host countries have set up free trade or exportprocessing zones (Kokko 2006). Market-seeking investment is attracted by factors like the host countrys market size, per capita income and market growth. For firms, new markets provide a chance to stay competitive and grow within the industry as well as achieve scale and scope economies. Apart from market size and trade restrictions, MNCs might be prompted to engage in market-seeking investment, when their main suppliers or customers have set up foreign producing facilities and in order to retain their business they need to follow them overseas Market-seeking also includes the search for strategic assets that change the MNC to sustain and advance its international competitive improvements (Kokko 2006). The motivation of efficiency-seeking FDI is to rationalize the structure of established resource based or market-seeking investment in such a way that the investing company can gain from the common governance of geographically dispersed activities. The intention of the efficiency-seeking MNC is to take advantage of different factor endowments, cultures, institutional arrangements, economic systems and policies, and market structures by concentrating production in a limited number of locations to supply multiple markets (Kokko 2006). Ownership, location, and internalization are the three potential sources of advantage that may underlie a firms decision to become a MNC. A key feature of this approach is that it focuses on the incentives facing individual firms.Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is determined by three sets of advantages which direct investment should have over the other institutional mechanisms available for a firm in pleasing the needs of its customers at home and abroad. The first of the advantages is the self-will specific one which includes the advantage that the firm has over its rivals in terms of its brand name, patent or knowledge of technology and marketing. This allows firms to compete with the other firms in the markets it serves regardless of the disadvantages of being foreign. The second is the internationalisation advantage, that is why a bundled FDI approach is preferred to unbundled product licensing, capital lending or technical assistance (Wheeler and Mody, 1992).The location-specific advantages relate to the importance for the firm to operate and invest in the host country and are those advantages that make the chosen foreign country a more attractive site for FDI than the others. For instance firms may invest in production facilities in foreign markets because transportation costs are too high to serve these markets through exports. This could either be directly related to the actual nature of the go od, either being a high bulk item or a service that needs to be provided on site, or due to policy factors such as tariff rates, import restrictions, or issues of market access that makes physical investment advantageous over serving the market through exports. Location advantage also embodies other characteristic (economic, institutional and political) such as large domestic markets, availability of natural resources, an educated labor force, low labor cost, good institutions (the clarity of countrys law, efficiency of bureaucracy and the absence of corruption), political stability, corporate and other tax rates among others.Negative effects of foreign investment on the economies of the HostAl Saffar (2010) states the criticisms directed against the common practices of foreign firms invested in host countries is that its main focus in the recruitment of its investments in industries quarrying for the purpose of re-use in the country of origin of the capital without making any effo rt to engage in manufacturing body process and development commensurate with the goals and aspirations of these countries, which do growth and development. This type of investment is characterized by extension of the parent face that harms the host country and adds nothing.Al Saffar (2010) states some foreign-owned supplier to the supply of technology investment in the form of packages, the staff is unable to host countries for investment, dismantled and place vocabulary to adapt and acquire scientific and technological expertise required for the manufacture of its terms, commensurate with the circumstances and their scientific and economic and social development. That this is clearly termination to affect negatively on the possibility of acquiring technical staff Local technological skills and diverse as these companies by another would not be attributable to their employees from the landlords, the National, but routine job sites that do not require sophisticated technical expe rtise. It thus does not allow creating a new chassis of professionals or the business of skilled scientific and technological and organizational and administrative, marketing and shielded from the possibility of opening prospects for new national projects and sophisticated and thus the host country has to invest in a spiral of underdevelopment.Al Saffar (2010) argues that rejecting the foreign investor is often the transfer of advanced technology in his possession the grounds that the host country is unable to digest and pull in these advanced Technology and modern. So he would prefer to import from abroad with the full line of production and fictionalization and thus ignore the important one the main objectives of the host countries is that companies he training of technical staffing group to have and given an opportunity to digest and absorb these technology and benefit from the adaptation and manufacture of the spectrum and its uses in locations other economic, commensurate wi th their economic circumstances.According to Al Saffar (2010) often foreign companies to import production inputs from abroad, such as materials preliminary and intermediate products as well as the import of spare parts for maintenance the project when you need after the run from their home countries is usually compared to less dependence on local inputs, tip to serious injury to the interests of the host country to the economic and trade deficits, including impair its ability to take advantage of natural resources and increase savings, which is desperately needed. We must give foreign investors a degree of administrative control by virtue of its contribution to the altitude money on investment projects, will limit or impair the effectiveness of policies sometimes economic development in the host country and restricts the alter degrees of independence of decision-makers local address balance of payments or to take any action, a suitable economic the impact and effectiveness of po sitive economic activities. (Al Saffar 2010)The foreign investment of foreign companies, making the host country loses some capacity to make some economic and political decisions on the management of its affairs which increases the economic dependency of these countries to developed countries. Besides, these foreign companies is strong negotiating and bargaining school on the selection and sitting investment and size and type of production through a selective approach in the selection of sites investments, creating a sort of incompatibility between the objectives and interests of these foreign companies Invested with what is planned in the path of economic and social development or the desired prepared for those countries. (Al Saffar 2010).The foreign invested companies operating in the area of services, media nd cultural services are often negatively affect the social systems and cultural and traditional set in the host countries .. As they are able to deploy Culture Western and especially American by marketing programs on culture and magazines and music and films and books at low prices exceeding the cost price only slightly so as not to be able to become local companies to compete with these low prices. Accordingly, these companies impose its assesss and culture and traditions of other societies and lead to a breach of and disorder and social systems, social values and traditions rooted and established who was raised by these communities generations long. (Al Saffar 2010)According to Al Saffar (2010) depriving the host country for foreign investment from income tax imposed on capital pecuniary resource or foreign companies on earnings transferred abroad or at imports from foreign inputs as imposed by the Convention as well as imposed by the WTO members from the requirement of national treatment when the imposition of laws and taxes and fees on investment activity as is the case with the local foreign It shall be a great loss for the developing countr ies that depends to a large extent in the financing of development on the tax revenue.Al Saffar (2010) states a key part of foreign investment consists of the profits realized locally and from here highlight the problem for local decision makers As for allowing foreign companies to transfer most of their profits to their mother countries, which means allowing them absorb the riches that have been newly generated by the activity within the host country, or a requirement that these companies this re-invest profits locally. This actually means to allow it to expand and increase the control of the national economy and thereby expanding its market dominance in local raise the rates of prices of goods and services, leading eventually to increase their profits back Other.According to Al Saffar (2010) Giving a lot of freedom for foreign companies to engage in unchecked activity will enhance their ability to evade compliance with laws and regulations issued by the Government of the country, the host and the virtue of its invoking a variety of pretexts, which requires follow-up its affairs professionally and observe it from Overcome any form of abuse.Al Saffar (2010) states Some economists believe that foreign investment leads to the creation of dependency and development underdevelopment are to be based originally on the shameless exploitation of cheap labor and exploitation of natural resources of the host country, thus leading to a loss of economic independence and political and greater dependency.VARIABLES DETERMINING FDI INFLOWS vulgar Capital Formation, in a transition economy, improvements in the investment climate help to attract higher FDI inflows. It translates into higher Gross capital formation which in turn leads to greater economic growth. Sridharan Perumal et al (2010) find inadequate evidence of FDI having an impact on capital formation in developed countries and observe that the most important aspect of FDI in the selected sample of countries is rel ated to ownership change. The family between FDI and Capital Formation is not simple (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010). In the case of certain privatization, it may not lead to increase at all or even result in reduction. Thus, the undecipherable relation between FDI and capital formation may also hold in a transition economy. However, a positive or negative and significant relationship between FDI and Capital Formation is expected. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010). specie valuation The strength of a currency (Exchange rate) is used as proxy for level of largeness and the purchasing power of the investing firm. Devaluation of a currency would result in reduced exchange rate risk. As a currency depreciates, the purchasing power of the investors in foreign currency terms is enhanced, thus we expect a positive and significant relationship between the currency value and FDI inflows. The currency value can be proxied by the factual Exchange Rate, Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) and N ominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER). (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010). address openness, Trade openness is considered to be a key determinant of FDI as represented in the previous literature much of FDI is export oriented and may also require the import of complementary, intermediate and capital goods. In either case, volume of trade is enhanced and thus trade openness is generally expected to be a positive and significant determinant of FDI. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).Infrastructure facilities, The well established and quality infrastructure is an important determinant of FDI flows. On the other hand, a country which has opportunity to attract FDI flows will stimulate a country to equip with good Infrastructure facilities. Therefore, we expect positively significant relationship between FDI and Infrastructure. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).Labour cost, Higher labour cost would result in higher cost of production and is expected to limit the FDI inflows therefore, we expect the negative and significant relationship between labour cost and FDI. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).Economic stability and growth prospects, A country which has a stable macroeconomic condition with high and sustained growth rates will receive more FDI inflows than a more volatile economy. The proxies measuring growth rate are gross domestic product growth rates, Industrial production index, Interest rates and Inflation rates. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).Market size, Larger market size should receive more inflows than that of smaller countries having lesser market size. Market size is generally measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), GDP per capita income and size of the middle class population. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).Currency valuation, The strength of a currency is used as proxy for level of inflation and the purchasing power of the investing firm. Devaluation of a currency would result in reduced exchange rate risk. As a currency depreciates, the purchasing power of t he investors in foreign currency terms is enhanced, thus we expect a positive and significant relationship between the currency value and FDI inflows. The currency value can be proxy by the Real Exchange Rate, Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) and Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER). (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).Gross Capital Formation, In a transition economy, improvements in the investment climate help to attract higher FDI inflows. It translates into higher Gross capital formation which in turn leads to greater economic growth. Sridharan Perumal et al (2010) find little evidence of FDI having an impact on capital formation in developed countries and observe that the most important aspect of FDI in the selected sample of countries is related to ownership change. The relationship between FDI and Capital Formation is not simple (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010). In the case of certain privatization, it may not lead to increase at all or even result in reduction. Thus, the unclea r relation between FDI and capital formation may also hold in a transition economy. Though, a positive or negative and significant relationship between FDI and Capital Formation is expected. (Sridharan Perumal et al 2010).

Countee Cullen :: essays research papers

Countee CullenCountee Cullen (Porter) was considered by many to be the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. Cullen was a novelist and a playwright, but he was known by most as a poet. He was born on March 30, 1903 in New York. Cullen was espouse at some point between the time of his birth and 1918. By 1921, he changed his last name to Cullen, from his choose mothers last name. He attended DeWitt Clinton eminent inform between (1918-1921). During this time he was editor of his schools newspaper and of the pickup Magpie, and during High School he wrote his start-off poetry that received notice. He too attended New York University for four years. Not much is known of the early years of his childhood up until 1918.Between the time of Cullens birth 1918 he was adopted by Rev. FrederickA.and Carolyn Bell (Mitchell) Cullen of the Salem Methodist EpiscopalChurch in Harlem. It is unknown how old Cullen was when he got adopted. Rev. Cullen regained Countee Cullens faith back in himself by getting him to understand that any goal or dream that he had to fulfill it. Countee received much help both mentally and physically from his adopted father, it is said that if Countee would not have been adopted by the Reverend he would not have gone as far as he lastly did. Countee Cullen was considered one of the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. A lot of his poetry was written during his high school and college years. During high school Cullen won his first contest, a citywide competition, with the poem I Have a Rendezvous with Life, a non-racial poem. Cullen was also the editor of his high school paper and a literary magazine Magpie. He furthered his wisdom and education at Countee Cullen essays research papers Countee CullenCountee Cullen (Porter) was considered by many to be the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. Cullen was a novelist and a playwright, but he was known by most as a poet. He was born on March 30, 1903 in New York. Cull en was adopted at some point between the time of his birth and 1918. By 1921, he changed his last name to Cullen, from his adopted mothers last name. He attended DeWitt Clinton High School between (1918-1921). During this time he was editor of his schools newspaper and of the magazine Magpie, and during High School he wrote his first poetry that received notice. He also attended New York University for four years. Not much is known of the early years of his childhood up until 1918.Between the time of Cullens birth 1918 he was adopted by Rev. FrederickA.and Carolyn Bell (Mitchell) Cullen of the Salem Methodist EpiscopalChurch in Harlem. It is unknown how old Cullen was when he got adopted. Rev. Cullen regained Countee Cullens faith back in himself by getting him to understand that any goal or dream that he had to fulfill it. Countee received much help both mentally and physically from his adopted father, it is said that if Countee would not have been adopted by the Reverend he would not have gone as far as he eventually did. Countee Cullen was considered one of the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. A lot of his poetry was written during his high school and college years. During high school Cullen won his first contest, a citywide competition, with the poem I Have a Rendezvous with Life, a non-racial poem. Cullen was also the editor of his high school paper and a literary magazine Magpie. He furthered his wisdom and education at

Communication Over The Internet, And The Effects It Will Have On Our E

Communication Over The Inter terminate, and The Effects It Will Have On Our EconomyThesis Communication over the internet is growing at a rapid rate, this rate ofgrowth may destroy the monopoly taking place with the major telecommunicationgiants.In this day and age we as a spheric community are growing at a super fast rate.Communication is a vital tool which aids us in falling out the distance barrier.Over the past decades there has been a monopoly in the telecommunicationsbusiness, but now with the power of the internet, and super fast data transferrates mickle can communicate across the globe and only pay local rates. Inessence the local phone companies almost promote this.- When you log on to the internet chances are that you are put down on through alocal internet provider. You will drill your computer modem to dial up and puddleand data link with your net provider. Where does the net provider get his superfast net connection from? He gets the connection from the local ph one company. How logging on the internet is almost like logging right onto the localtelephone company.-It all boils down to, the local phone company approving the use of the internetfor any means. How phone companies are going to bring them selves down.-I feel that because of this phone companies will be the cause to their owndownfall. Methods of communication over the net-There are many ways of communicating over the net Inter relay chat (text only)-Video/Audio there are many ...